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Supplement 1: Rhetorical Situation Poster
Definition
Some might say that the rhetorical situation, an expression coined by Lloyd Bitzer, is the most important concept in writing.
According to Bitzer, all writing occurs within a rhetorical situation, and every rhetorical situation has three components. First, a rhetorical situation includes what he calls an “exigence,” or occasion for writing. More specifically, such an occasion carries with it both a sense of urgency and a promise that through writing, a composer can make a change to that situation.
Second (and while it may seem obvious), a rhetorical situation includes an audience that can be influenced by or react to the writing.
Third, a rhetorical situation by definition has constraints, and they come in two forms. An author may bring certain constraints to the writing: for example, certain beliefs that influence how the author understands a given issue. Likewise, there are constraints associated with the situation itself: for instance, the frame of mind of the audience or the environment in which they hear or read a text. Both of these constraints are part of the rhetorical situation because they can influence the audience’s response and the writer’s potential to make change.
Importance in the Field
Although scholars disagree on which comes first—the writing or the rhetorical situation—they agree that effective writers use the concept of the rhetorical situation throughout their composing processes. They use it as a way to frame a writing task, for example. And they use it as they compose, to be sure that their writing keeps its intended focus.
In sum, the rhetorical situation is the situation in which we all write—be it a text message, a resume, a research project, or a poster.
Resources
Atwill, Janet. “The Rhetorical Situation as a Site of Critique and Invention.” Annual Convention of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. San Antonio. March 2004. Presentation.
Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 1.1. (Jan. 1968): 1–14. Print.
Booth, Wayne. “The Rhetorical Stance.” College Composition and Communication 14.3 (October 1963): 139–45. Print.
Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 6.3 (1973): 154–161.
Copyright © 2010 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.
Supplement 2: Six Common Types of Claim
The six most common types of claim are: fact, definition, value, cause, comparison, and policy. Being able to identify these types of claim in other people’s arguments can help students better craft their own. The types of claim can also be used to brainstorm possible arguments students
might make about an issue they have decided to examine.
- A claim of fact takes a position on questions like: What happened? Is it true? Does it exist? Example: “Though student demonstrations may be less evident than they were in the 1960s, students are more politically active than ever.”
- A claim of definition takes a position on questions like: What is it? How should it be classified or interpreted? How does its usual meaning change in a particular context? Example: “By examining what it means to ‘network,’ it’s clear that social networking sites encourage not networking but something else entirely.”
- A claim of value takes a position on questions like: Is it good or bad? Of what worth is it? Is it moral or immoral? Who thinks so? What do those people value? What values or criteria should I use to determine how good or bad? Example: “Video games are a valuable addition to modern education.”
- A claim of cause takes a position on questions like: What caused it? Why did it happen? Where did it come from? What are the effects? What probably will be the results on a short-term and long-term basis? Example: “By seeking to replicate the experience of reading physical books, new hardware and software actually will lead to an appreciation of printed and bound texts for years to come.”
- A claim of comparison takes a position on questions like: What can be learned by comparing one subject to another? What is the worth of one thing compared to another? How can we better understand one thing by looking at another? Example: “The varied policies of the US and British education systems reveal a difference in values.”
- A claim of policy takes a position on questions like: What should we do? How should we act? What should be future policy? How can we solve this problem? What course of action should we pursue? Example: “Sex education should be part of the public school curriculum.”
*The text of this section comes from a student-directed writing guide created by Paul Barron and Jennifer Metsker. Since the guide is addressed to students, this is a resource you could share with them directly.
