- Exhibitions
- Special Exhibitions
- Object Spotlights: Crossroads of Culture, 400–1800
- Crossroads of Culture, 400–1800 | Object Spotlight #4
- Coins of Empires: Mining and the Environment
In the premodern world, coins were made of bronze, silver, gold, and copper and its alloys. All of these materials had to be mined from the earth, without modern equipment, which was a laborious and time-consuming process.
One mining technology the Romans used was called “hushing,” which combined the powers of multiple natural elements to erode rock. After heating the rock with fire, it was rapidly cooled with water brought in via an aqueduct. The rock would crack, exposing metal ore that could be removed with pickaxes or similar tools. This technique may have continued to be used at a smaller scale during the Byzantine Empire. In the Islamic period, ore was extracted without fire and pulverized by hand but still purified with water.
Most of the coins on display here were minted in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople—modern Istanbul, Türkiye. Though there were no mining facilities nearby, the imperial mint was able to access metals from all across the empire, which stretched from Spain to Syria at its height.
Browse Objects
Coin of Anastasius I
Bronze follis
Constantinople mint, 491–518 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.1106
The emperor Anastasius I reintroduced this type of bronze coin, called a follis, as part of his reform of the Byzantine Empire’s monetary system. This coin was usable in day-to-day transactions by the empire’s citizens. Its face pictures the emperor himself, while its reverse shows stars, a cross, and a large “M,” the Greek numeral for 40—meaning that this coin was worth 40 nummi (accounting units).
Coin of Justinian I
Bronze follis
Carthage mint, 539–540 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.1114
Much like modern coinage depicts side views of leaders and important figures, earlier Greek and Roman coins showed portraits of emperors’ profiles. Justinian I, however, broke with tradition by having his imperial portrait face forward, as illustrated on this follis. The forward-facing portrait style became the norm for coinage in the rest of the Byzantine Empire.
This coin’s reverse bears an M, a cross, and the date it was minted.
Coin of Constans II and Son Constantine IV
Gold solidus
Constantinople mint, 659–668 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.944
This coin (a solidus) was the principal gold coin of the Byzantine Empire until further monetary reforms took place under the Comnenid dynasty 400 years later. Gold coins such as this one were rarely used on a day-to-day basis. Instead, they paid the wages of imperial soldiers or were saved by individuals for large transactions.
Emperors would often name their heir co-emperor—a relationship that can be seen in the iconography of this coin: Constans II, the senior emperor wearing a beard, is shown on the left (the position of honor), while the junior status of Constantine IV is highlighted by his position on the right and his lack of a beard. The coin’s reverse shows imperial predecessors Heraclius and Tiberius with a cross.
Coin with Six Lines of Inscription
Silver miliaresion
Constantinople mint, 869–879 CE
A. Gordus gift, 2009. KM 2009.1.87
First introduced in 720 CE, this new denomination of silver coin was called a miliaresion because it was worth 1,000 (Latin: miles) nummi. The reverse of this coin bears a cross and a globe, common motifs of imperial power at the time. Its face, however, bears a Greek inscription referring to the “Faithful Roman Emperors Basil and Constantine.” This imprint drew on the iconography of the coins (dirhems) of the neighboring Umayyad caliphate—the first Islamic dynasty—where the prohibition of carved human figures resulted in the use of Arabic inscriptions rather than images.
Coin of Nicephorus II Phocas and Virgin
Gold solidus
Constantinople mint, 963–969 CE
Gift in memory of L. Houk, 1984. KM 1984.4.6
The face of this coin (a solidus) shows the Christian Virgin Mary standing next to Emperor Nicephorus II. From his reign onward, Mary was one of the most common figures on Byzantine coins, either standing alone or with the emperor. Her position here—in the place of honor on the left—also demonstrates a larger trend in Byzantine coinage, in which heavenly figures take precedence over imperial ones. The coin’s reverse shows a bust of Christ Pantocrator, or “all-powerful”—an image that represents the omnipotence of Christ as he watches over the empire.
Coin of Basil II Bulgaroktonos and Constantine VIII
Gold histamenon
Constantinople mint, 976–1025 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.947
Basil II introduced new varieties of gold coins, including the histamenon (meaning “standard” in Greek, in reference to the standardization of the amount of gold in these coins). The images on this example continue the practice of earlier Byzantine rulers, showing both the senior and junior emperors in an arrangement that reflects their stations: a bearded Basil II on the left and a barefaced Constantine VIII on the right. The coin’s reverse shows a bust of Christ, claiming that the emperors had divine approval.
Coin of Constantine IX Monomachus
Gold histamenon
Constantinople mint, 1042–1055 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.948
The curved, or convex, shape of this histamenon may have been used to indicate that the coin’s gold was mixed with other metals. From the time of its introduction to the end of the Byzantine Empire 400 years later, this convex shape was one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine coinage. The mixing of gold with other metals without changing the nominal value of the coin became increasingly common in the later Byzantine Empire, despite several attempts to rectify the issue.
The coin displayed here shows Emperor Constantine IX, while its reverse depicts a bust of Christ Pantocrator.
Coin of Constantine IX Monomachus
Gold histamenon
Constantinople mint, 1042–1055 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.949
Constantine IX was the first emperor to include his family name (Monomachus) on Byzantine coinage—a development that reflects the growth in the power of the landed aristocracy in the 11th century. This new practice emphasized family networks beyond the emperor’s immediate household.
By this period, the image of the emperor—seen on the face of this histamenon—had become quite stylized and generally aimed to portray a standard image rather than a recognizable portrait. The reverse shows Christ seated on a throne.
Coin of Constantine X Ducas
Gold histamenon
Constantinople mint, 1059–1067 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.950
On the face of this coin, Emperor Constantine X is shown wearing a garment called a loros, a large scarf that wrapped around the body in a complex fashion. By the 11th century, the elaborate loros costume had been transformed into a simpler robe in coin portraits. This became one of the most distinctive features of the emperor’s regalia on the coinage of the time, supplanting the military armor that rulers donned on earlier coins. The use of military clothing was criticized as impious, since such imagery implied that the emperor ruled through his own power rather than through divine favor.
The reverse of this histamenon depicts Christ on a throne.
Coin of Michael VII Ducas
Gold histamenon
Constantinople mint, 1071–1078 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.951
In the 11th century, gold coinage such as this histamenon was seriously devalued, as gold was mixed with other, less expensive metals in an attempt to cut costs. By the reign of Emperor Michael VII—pictured on this coin’s face with Christ Pantocrator on the reverse—the previously pure (24-carat) gold used to make the histamenon had been reduced to 12 carats. This quality and gold content continued to decrease until production of the histamenon ceased.
Coin of Alexius I Comnenus,
Crowned by Hand of God
Gold hyperpyron
Constantinople mint, 1092–1118 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.952
Emperor Alexius I of the Comnenid dynasty reformed the Byzantine monetary system in 1092, in part due to the debasement of coinage during the previous century. He instituted a new gold denomination called a hyperpyron—meaning “above fire,” referring to the refining process of the high-quality gold.
The image on this coin’s face makes the bold claim that God himself was the source of imperial power. Its reverse, with Christ seated on a throne, likewise emphasizes the emperor’s divine approval.
Coin of Manuel I Comnenus
Billon aspron trachy
Constantinople mint, 1152–ca. 1160 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.1311
This coin, called an aspron trachy, shows Emperor Manuel I on one side and Christ enthroned on the other. The name trachy (Greek for “rough”) was used because of the coin’s convex shape—though the trachy was hardly the only denomination with this feature. The later addition of aspron (from the Latin word asper, also meaning “rough”) came to refer to the white-gray color of these coins that resulted from silver being mixed with other metals. Because the quality of coins typically corresponds to the economic status of the empire, coins like this were introduced during times of strained resources.
Coin of John III Ducas Vatatzes, Crowned by Virgin
Gold hyperpyron
Nicaea mint, 1222–1254 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.955
Following the capture of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204, several “successor states” emerged. Founded by John III Ducas Vatatzes, the Empire of Nicaea had the ability to manufacture coinage—legitimizing the state as the true continuation of the Byzantine Empire, which was restored in 1261.
The reverse of this hyperpyron shows Christ Pantocrator on a throne, while its face depicts John III being crowned by the Virgin Mary. Although heavenly figures usually take the position of honor on the left, it was seen as necessary for them to perform certain actions with their right hand, as seen here.
Coin of Manuel I Megas Comnenus,
Crowned by Hand of God
Silver aspron trachy
Trebizond mint, 1238–1263 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.1317
Another “successor state” of the Byzantine Empire, the Empire of Trebizond had already been established on the Black Sea before the Crusaders invaded Constantinople in April 1204. Trebizond also lasted beyond the final siege of Constantinople in 1453—falling to the Ottomans in 1461. Given the instability of this period, the quality of coins declined, as did the capacity to produce gold, which was limited to Nicaea.
This aspron trachy shows the emperor Manuel I, with its reverse depicting the standing form of Saint Eugenius, a Christian martyr and the patron saint of Trebizond.
Coin of Andronicus II Palaeologus and
Son Michael IX with Christ
Gold hyperpyron
Constantinople mint, 1295–1320 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.956
The Palaeologid dynasty recaptured Constantinople in 1261—going on to rule the city until its fall to the Ottoman Empire. During this period, imperial coinage resumed as it had been before the Crusaders invaded.
While its reverse shows the Virgin Mary in a posture of prayer, the face of this hyperpyron was intended to establish a smooth transition between Emperor Andronicus II and Michael IX, his son and intended successor. However, things did not always go as planned: Michael predeceased his father, leading to the rebellion of Andronicus III (Andronicus’ grandson).
Coin of John VIII Palaeologus with Halo
Silver half hyperpyron
Constantinople mint, 1423–1448 CE
G. R. Monks bequest, 1991. KM 1991.2.1316
The last period of the Byzantine Empire faced many problems. For one, it was in dire financial straits as it lost territory to the rising Ottoman Empire. The production of gold coinage ceased after 1350 and was replaced by the silver half hyperpyron as the empire continued to lose access to important resources. Simultaneously, the quality of production declined, as is evident on this coin showing Emperor John VIII with a halo (obverse) and a bust of Christ Pantocrator (reverse).
